Os processos de globalização - Boaventura Sousa Santos

Referências Bibliográficas


Aglietta, Michel (1979), A Theory of Capitalist Regulation. London: New Left Books.

Albrow, Martin; King, Elizabeth (eds.) (1990), Globalization, Knowledge and Society. London: Sage.

Appadurai, Arjun (1990), "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global and Cultural Economy", Public Culture, 2, 1-24.



Appadurai, Arjun (1997), Modernity at Large. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Appadurai, Arjun (1999), "Globalization and the Research Imagination", International Social Science Journal, 160, 229-238.

Arrighi, Giovanni (1994), The Long Twentieth Century. London: Verso.

Arrighi, Giovanni; Silver, Beverly (1999), Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Barber, Benjamim; Schulz, Andrea (eds.) (1995), Jihad vs. McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping the World. New York: Ballantine Books.

Bauman, Zygmunt (1992), Intimations of Postmodernity. London: Routledge.

Beck, Ulrich (1992), Risk Society. Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage.

Becker, David et al. (1987), Postimperialism. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Becker, David; Sklar, Richard (1987), "Why Postimperialism?" in Becker et al.,1-18.

Bergesen, Albert (1990), "Turning World-System Theory on its Head", in Featherstone (ed.), 67-81.

Bergesen, Albert (ed.) (1980), Studies of the Modern World-System. New York: Academic Press.

Berman, Harold (1983), Law and Revolution. The Formation of Western Legal Tradition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Berry, Wendell (1996), "Conserving Communities", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 407-417.

Boulding, Elise (1991), "The Old and New Transnationalism: An Evolutionary Perspective", Human Relations, 44, 789-805.

Boyer, Charles (1998), "Le politique à l'ère de la mondialization et de la finance: Le point sur quelques recherches regulationnistes". Comunicação ao Colóquio "Evolution et Transformation des Systèmes Economiques: Approches Comparatives du Capitalisme et du Socialisme", Paris; EHESS, 19-21 Junho.

Boyer, Robert (1990), The Regulation School: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press.

Boyer, Robert (ed.) (1986), Capitalismes Fin de Siècle. Paris: Maspero.

Boyer, Robert; Drache, Daniel (eds.) (1996), States Against Markets: The Limits of Globalization. New York: Routledge.

Castells, Manuel (1996), The Rise of the Network Society. Cambridge: Blackwell.

Chase-Dunn, Christopher (1991), Global Formation: Structures of the World-Economy. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Chase-Dunn, Christopher et al. (1998), "Globalization: A World-System Perspective", XIV World Congress of Sociology, Montreal (available at www.csf.colorado.edu/systems/archives/papers.htm ) .

Chossudovsky , Michel (1997), The Globalization of Poverty: Impacts of IMF and World Bank Reforms. London: Zed Books.

Clarke, Tony (1996), "Mechanisms of Corporate Rule", in J. Mander e E. Goldsmith (eds.), The Case Against the Global Economy. São Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 297-308.

Drache, Daniel (1999), "Globalization: Is There Anything to Fear?", Paper presented to the seminar Governing the Public Domain beyond the Era of the Washington Consensus?: Redrawing the Line between the State and the Market. Toronto: York University, November 4-6.

Evans, Peter (1979), Dependent Development: the Alliance of Multinational, State and Local Capital in Brazil. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Evans, Peter (1986), "State, capital and the transformation of dependence: the Brazilian computer case", World Development, 14, 791-808.

Evans, Peter (1987), "Class, state and dependence in East Asia: lessons for Latin Americanists", in Deyo (ed.), 203-225.

Falk, Richard (1995), On Human Governance: Toward a New Global Politics. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press.

Falk, Richard (1999), Predatory Globalization: A Critique.Cambridge: Polity Press.

Featherstone, Mike (1990), "Global Culture: An Introduction", in Featherstone (ed.), 1-14.

Featherstone, Mike (ed.) (1990), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity. London: Sage.

Featherstone, ,Mike et al. (1995), Global Modernities. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Fortuna, Carlos (ed.) (1997), Cidade, cultura e globalização. Lisboa: Celta.

Fröbel, Folker et al. (1980), The New International Division of Labor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fukuyama, Francis (1992), The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The Free Press.

Giddens, Anthony (1990), Sociology. Oxford: Polity Press.

Giddens, Anthony (1991), The Consequences of Modernity. Oxford: Polity Press.

Giddens, Anthony (1999), Para uma terceira via: A renovação da social-democracia. Lisboa: Presença.

Haggard, Stephan; Simmons, B.A. (1987), "Theories of International Regimes", International Organization, 41, 491-549.

Hall, Stuart; Gleben, Bram (eds.) (1992), Formations of Modernity. London: Polity Press.

Hall, Stuart; McGrew, T. (eds.) (1992), Modernity and its Futures. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Hannerz, Ulf (1990), "Cosmopolitan and Local in World Culture", in Featherstone (ed.), 237-251.

Harvey, David (1989), The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Held, David (1993), "Democracy: From City-States to a Cosmopolitan Order", in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Hendley, Kathryn (1995), "The Spillover Effect of Privatization on Russian Legal Culture", Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems, 5, 40-64.

Hines, Colin; Lang, Tim (1996), "In Favor of a New Protectionism", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 418-424.

Hopkins, Terence; Wallerstein, Immanuel; Casparis, J. ; Derlugian, G. (1996), The Age of Transition: Trajectory of the World-System, 1945-2025. London: Zed Books.

Hunter, Allen (1995), "Globalization from Below? Promises and Perils of the New Internationalism", Social Policy (25)4, 6-13.

Huntington, Samuel(1993), "The Clash of Civilizations?", Foreign Affairs, LXXII, 3-12.

Ianni, Octavio (1998), "O Príncipe electrónico", Primeira Versão (IFCH/UNICAMP), 78, Novembro.

Inhoff, Daniel (1996), "Community Supported Agriculture: Farming with a Face on It", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 425-433.

Jameson, Fredric; Miyoshi, Masao (eds.) (1998), The Cultures of Globalization. Durham: Duke University Press.

Jessop, Bob (1990a), State Theory. Putting Capitalist States in their Place.University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.

Jessop, Bob (1990b), "Regulation Theories in Retrospect and Prospect". Economy and Society, 19, 153-216.

Jessop, Bob (1995), "The Future of the National State: Erosion or Reorganization? General Reflections on the West European Case". Comunicação apresentada na 2ª Conferência da Theory, Culture and Society "Culture and Identity: City, Nation, World". Berlin, 10-14 August.

Kennedy, Paul (1993), Preparing for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Random House.

Keohane, Robert (1985), After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Keohane, Robert; Nye, Joseph (1977), Power and Interdependence. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Kidder, Thalia; McGinn, Mary (1995), "In the Wake of NAFTA: Transnational Workers Networks", Social Policy, (25)4, 14-20.

Kotz, David (1990), "A Comparative Analysis of the Theory of Regulation and the Social Structure of Accumulation Theory", Science and Society, 54, 5-28.

Krasner, Stephen (ed.) (1983), International Regimes. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Kumar, Satish (1996), "Gandhi's Swadeshi: The Economics of Permanence", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 418-424.

Lash, Scott; Urry, John (1996), Economics of Signs and Space. London: Sage.

Mahnkopf, B. (ed.) (1988), Der gewendete Kapitalismus: Kritische Beiträge zu einer Theorie der Regulation. Münster: Westfälischer Dampfboot.

Maizels, Alfred (1992), Commodities In Crisis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mander, Jerry (1996), "Facing the Rising Tide", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 3-19.

Mander, Jerry; Goldsmith, Edward (eds.) (1996), The Case against the Global Economy. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

McMichael, Philip (1996), Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge.

McMichael, Philip; Myhre, D. (1990), "Global Regulation vs. the Nation-State: Agro-Food Systems and the New Politics of Capital", Review of Radical Political Economy, 22, 59-77.

Meeker-Lowry, Susan (1996), "Community Money: The Potential of Local Currency", in Mander e Goldsmith (ogs.), 446-459.

Meyer, John (1987), "The World Polity and the Authority of the Nation-state", in G. Thomas et al. , 41-70.

Meyer, William (1987), "Testing Theories of Cultural Imperialism: International Media and Domestic Impact", International Interactions, 13, 353-374.

Morris, David (1996), "Communities: Building Authority, Responsability and Capacity", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 434-445.

Murphy, Craig (1994), International Organization and Industrial Change. Oxford: Polity Press.

Noel, A. (1987), "Accumulation, Regulation and Social Change: An Essay on French Political Economy", International Organization , 41, 303-333.

Norberg-Hodge, Helena (1996), "Shifting Direction: From Global Dependence to Local Interdependence", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 393-406.

North, Douglas (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

OECD/DAC (2000) "Development Co-operation Report 1999 - Efforts and Policies of the Members of the Development Assistance Committee", The DAC Journal1(1).

Parsons, Talcott (1971), The System of Modern Societies. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Pureza, José Manuel (1999), O património comum da humanidade: rumo a um direito internacional da solidariedade?. Porto: Afrontamento.

Reis, José (1998), "O institucionalismo económico: crónica sobre os saberes da economia", Notas Económicas - Revista da Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de Coimbra, 11, 130-149.

Ritzer, G. (1995), The MacDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge.

Robertson, Roland (1990), "Mapping the Global Condition: Globalization as the Central Concept", in Featherstone (ed.), 15-30.

Robertson, Roland (1992), Globalization. London: Sage.

Robertson, Roland; Khondker, Habib (1998), "Discourses of Globalization. Preliminary Considerations", International Sociology, 13 (1), 25-40.

Robinson, William (1995), "Globalization: Nine Theses on our Epoch", Race and Class , 38(2), 13-31.

Sale, Kirkpatrick (1996), "Principles of Bioregionalism", in Mander e Goldsmith (eds.), 471-484.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1995), Toward a New Common Sense: Law, Science and Politics in the Paradigmatic Transition. New York: Routledge.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1996), "A queda do Angelus Novus. Para além da equação moderna entre raízes e opções", Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais, 45, 5-34 (English version online in www.eurozine.com).

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1997), "Por uma concepção multicultural de direitos humanos", Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais, 48, 11-32.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1998a), "Participatory Budgeting in Porto Alegre: Toward a Redistributive Democracy", Politics and Society, 26(4), 461-510.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1998b), Reinventar a Democracia. Lisboa: Gradiva.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1999), "Porque é tão difícil construir uma teoria crítica?", Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais, 54, 197-216.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (2000a), A crítica da razão indolente: Contra o desperdício da experiência. Porto: Afrontamento.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (2000b), "Law and Democracy: (Mis)trusting the Global Reform of Courts", in Jane Jenson; B. S. Santos (eds.), Globalizing Institutions: Case Studies in Regulation and Innovation. Aldershot: Ashgate, 253-284.

Sassen, Saskia (1991), The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sassen, Saskia (1994), Cities in a World Economy. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.

Schumpeter, Joseph (1976), Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. London: George Allen and Unwin.

Silverstein, K. (1999) "Millions for Viagra, Pennies for Diseases of the Poor: Research Money Goes to Profitable Lifestyle Drugs". The Nation, 19 de Julho.

Singh, Ajit (1993), "The Lost Decade: The Economic Crisis of the Third World in the 1980s: How the North Caused the South's Crisis", Contention, 3, 137-169.

Sklair, Leslie (1991), Sociology of the Global System. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Smith, Anthony (1990), "Towards a Global Culture?", in Featherstone (ed.), 171-191.

Stallings, Barbara (1992), "International Influence on Economic Policy: Debt, Stabilization and Structural Reform", in Haggard and Kaufman (eds.), 41-88.

Stallings, Barbara (ed.) (1995), Global Change, Regional Response: The New International Context of Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Stallings, Barbara; Streeck, Wolfgang (1995), "Capitalisms in Conflict? The United States, Europe and Japan in the Post-cold War World", in Stallings (ed.), 67-99.

Thomas, George et al. (1987), Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society and the Individual. Beverly Hills: Sage.

Tilly, Charles (1990), Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1990. Cambridge: Blackwell.

Tilly, Charles ,(1995), "Globalization Threatens Labor's Rights", International Labor and Working-Class History, 47, 1-23.

Toulmin, Stephen , (1990), Cosmopolis. The Hidden Agenda of Modernity. New York: Free Press.

UNAIDS, Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2000) Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemia. Genebra: UNAIDS.

UNDP - Human Development Report (1999) Globalizing with a Human Face. New York: Oxford University Press.

UNDP - Human Development Report (2001) Making New Technologies Work for Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press.

UNICEF (2000) Promise and Progress: Achiving Goals for Children (1990-2000). New York: UNICEF

van der Velden, Frans (1984), "Uniform International Sales Law and the Battle of Forms", in Contributions in Honour of J.G. Sauveplanne. Unification and Comparative Law in Theory and Practice. Antwerp: Kluwer, 233-249.

Vroey, Michel De (1984), "A Regulation Approach Interpretation of the Contemporary Crisis", Capital and Class, 23, 45-66.

Wade, Robert (1990), Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Wade, Robert (1996), "Japan, the World Bank and the Art of Paradigm Maintenance: The East Asian Miracle in Political Perspective", Revue d'Economie Financeire, 3-36.

Wallerstein, Immanuel (1979), The Capitalist World-Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wallerstein, Immanuel (1991a), Geopolitics and Geoculture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wallerstein, Immanuel (1991b), Unthinking Social Science. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Waters, Malcolm (1995), Globalization. London: Routledge.

Whitley, Richard (1992), Business Systems in East Asia. Firms, Markets and Societies. London: Sage.

World Bank (1994), Averting the Old Age Crisis: Policies to Protect the Old and Promote Growth. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

World Bank (1997), World Development Report 1997. New York: Oxford University Press.

World Bank (1998) African Development Indicators. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

World Bank (2000) Global Development Finance. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

Wuthnow, Robert (1985), "State Structures and Ideological Outcomes", American Sociological Review, 50, 799-821.

Wuthnow, Robert (1987), Meaning of Moral Order. Berkeley: University of California Press.


• [1] Walton (1985) refere três formas sucessivas de "divisões internacionais do trabalho", caracterizando-se a última e actual pela globalização da produção levada a cabo pelas multinacionais. Uma revisão das diferentes abordagens às "novas divisões internacionais do trabalho", pode ser vista em Jenkins (1984). Ver igualmente Gordon (1988).


• [2] No mesmo sentido, cfr. Wade (1990, 1996) e Whitley (1992).

• [3] Segundo o mesmo relatório, 46% da população mundial a viver em pobreza absoluta vive na África subsahariana, 40% no Sul da Ásia e 15% no Extremo Oriente, Pacífico e América Latina. De qualquer modo, a proporção de pessoas a viver em pobreza absoluta diminuiu entre 1993 e 1998 de 29% para 24% (PNUD, 2001: 22). Ver também Kennedy (1993: 193-228) e Chossudovsky (1997). De acordo com Maizels (1992) as exportações de bens primários do Terceiro Mundo aumentaram quase 100% durante o período 1980-88. Mas as receitas obtidas em 1988 foram 30% inferiores às obtidas em 1980. Ver também Singh (1993).

• [4] Em 1995, a malária afectava, por cada 100 habitantes, 16 pessoas no Quénia, 21 na Nova Guiné Papua, 33 na Zâmbia (PNUD, 1999).

• [5] Ver Stallings (1992b). Da perspectiva das relações internacionais, ver Durand, Lévy, Retaillé (1993).

• [6] Cfr. Featherstone (1990); Appadurai (1990); Berman (1983); W. Meyer (1987); Giddens (1990, 1991); Bauman (1992). Ver também Wuthnow (1985, 1987); Bergesen (1980).

• [7] Ver também Featherstone (1990: 10); Wallerstein (1991a: 184); Chase-Dunn (1991: 103). Para Wallerstein o contraste entre o sistema-mundial moderno e os impérios mundiais anteriores reside no facto de o primeiro combinar uma única divisão do trabalho com um sistema de Estados independentes e de sistemas culturais múltiplos (Wallerstein, 1979: 5).

• [8] Sobre esta questão, ver Stallings (1995) em que são analisadas as respostas regionais da América Latina, do Sudeste Asiático e da África sub-sahariana às pressões globais. Ver também Boyer (1998) e Drache (1999)

• [9] Entre muitos outros, ver Boyer (1996, 1998); Drache (1999).

• [10] Sobre os conceitos de turbulência de escalas e de explosão de escalas, ver Santos (1996).

• [11] Cfr. também McMichael (1996: 169). A dialéctica da inclusão e da exclusão é particularmente visível no mercado global da comunicação e da informação. Com excepção da África do Sul, o continente africano é, para este mercado, um continente inexistente.

• [12] O globalismo localizado pode ocorrer sob a forma do que Fortuna chama "globalização passiva", a situação em que "algumas cidades se vêem incorporadas de modo passivo nos meandros da globalização e são incapazes de fazer reconhecer aqueles recursos [globalizantes próprios] no plano transnacional" (1997: 16).

• [13] A ideia do cosmopolitismo como universalismo, cidadania do mundo, negação das fronteiras políticas e territoriais, tem uma longa tradição na cultura ocidental, da lei cósmica de Pitágoras e a philallelia de Demócrito ao "Homo suum, humani nihil a me alienum puto" de Terêncio, da res publica christiana medieval aos humanistas da Renascença, da ideia de Voltaire para quem "para ser bom patriota [é] necessário tornar-se inimigo do resto do mundo" até ao internacionalismo operário.

• [14] A distinção entre o material e o simbólico não deve ser levada para além de limites razoáveis já que cada um dos pólos da distinção contém o outro (ou alguma dimensão do outro), ainda que de forma recessiva. O "mais" material a que me refiro são basicamente os direitos económicos e sociais conquistados e tornados possíveis pelo Estado-Providência: os salários indirectos, a segurança social, etc. O "mais" simbólico inclui, por exemplo, a inclusão na ideologia nacionalista, ou na ideologia consumista e a conquista de direitos desprovidos de meios eficazes de aplicação. Uma das consequências da globalização hegemónica tem sido a crescente erosão do "mais" material, compensada pela intensificação do "mais" simbólico.

• [15] Analiso esta questão no meu estudo sobre o orçamento participativo em Porto Alegre (Santos, 1998a).

• [16] Sobre o património comum da humanidade, ver, entre muitos outros, Santos (1995: 365-373) e o estudo exaustivo de Pureza (1999).

• [17] Sobre a globalização de-baixo-para-cima ou contra-hegemónica, ver Hunter (1995); Kidder e McGinn (1995). Ver também Falk (1995 e 1999). Ambos os trabalhos visam as coligações e redes internacionais de trabalhadores que emergiram do NAFTA.

• [18] No mesmo sentido, é sugerido que os movimentos progressistas devem usar os instrumentos do nacionalismo económico para combater as forças do mercado.

• [19] Sobre os conceitos de democracia de alta intensidade e de democracia de baixa intensidade, ver Santos (1998b) e Santos (2000b).

• [20] Sobre este ponto, cfr. Santos (1997).

• [21] Ver, por todos, Castells (1996).

• [22] Este fenómeno está analisado em detalhe em Santos (2000b).

• [23] Sobre este "movimento" da reforma global dos tribunais, ver Santos (2000b).

• [24] Wallerstein (1991a); Hopkins et al. (1996). Ver também Arrighi e Silver (1999).

• [25] Aglietta (1979); Boyer (1986, 1990). Ver também Jessop (1990a, 1990b); Kotz (1990); Mahnkopf (1988); Noel (1987); Vroey (1984).

• [26] Sobre estas três estratégias do Estado moderno, ver Santos (1995: 99-109).

• [27] Apesar de considerarem a globalização um fenómeno velho, alguns dos teóricos do sistema mundial, como é o caso de Wallerstein, perfilham leituras paradigmáticas a partir de análises sistémicas, nomeadamente da análise da sobreposição de pontos de ruptura nos diferentes processos de longa duração que constituem o sistema mundial moderno.

• [28] A justificação desta posição é apresentada noutro lugar (Santos, 1995, 2000a).